Research
The Discovery of ACTH
ACTH, the pituitary peptide that drives cortisol release, was isolated and sequenced through efforts by Li, Bell, Harris, and others in the 1940s-1950s.
AI and Machine Learning in Peptide Discovery
How artificial intelligence and machine learning are transforming peptide drug discovery, from de novo sequence design and property prediction to accelerating clinical development timelines.
Andrew Schally
Andrew Schally is a Polish-American neuroendocrinologist who shared the 1977 Nobel Prize for isolating hypothalamic peptide hormones.
History of Angiotensin Research
The angiotensin peptides emerged from parallel Argentine and American research in the 1930s-1950s that revealed the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.
Animal Models in Peptide Research
An overview of how animal models are used in peptide research, the principles of dose translation between species, and why animal data does not always predict human outcomes.
Antimicrobial Peptides
An overview of antimicrobial peptide research, covering LL-37, defensins, and other host defense peptides, their mechanisms of action, and their potential role in addressing antibiotic resistance.
History of Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
Atrial natriuretic peptide was identified in 1981 by Adolfo de Bold, establishing the heart as an endocrine organ.
Banting and Best: The Discovery of Insulin
How Frederick Banting, Charles Best, J.J.R. Macleod, and James Collip isolated insulin in 1921 at the University of Toronto.
History of Bioassay Methods
Bioassays — the measurement of biological activity in living systems — were the primary method for characterizing peptide hormones before the immunoassay era.
The Discovery of Bombesin
Bombesin was isolated in 1971 from European fire-bellied toad skin by Erspamer and colleagues, leading to discovery of its mammalian homolog GRP.
The Discovery of BPC-157
BPC-157 was identified in the 1990s by a Croatian research group as a stable fragment of a larger gastric protective protein.
The Discovery of Bradykinin
Bradykinin, a central mediator of inflammation and vasodilation, was discovered in 1949 by Rocha e Silva, Beraldo, and Rosenfeld in Brazil.
The Discovery of Calcitonin
Calcitonin was identified in 1961 by Douglas Copp as a fast-acting calcium-lowering hormone secreted by the thyroid C-cells.
The Discovery of Cholecystokinin
Cholecystokinin, the gut peptide that triggers gallbladder contraction and pancreatic enzyme release, was identified by Ivy and Oldberg in 1928.
Charles Best
Charles Best was a Canadian scientist who, as a medical student, partnered with Frederick Banting in the 1921 isolation of insulin.
Clinical Trial Phases
A breakdown of the clinical trial process from Phase I through Phase IV, explaining what each stage measures, typical timelines, and the regulatory pathway from bench to approval.
Compounding Pharmacy Peptides
A detailed overview of how compounding pharmacies produce peptides, the regulatory distinction between 503A and 503B facilities, and the FDA's Category 1/2/3 classification system for bulk drug substances.
Cosmetic Peptides Overview
An overview of peptides used in cosmetic and dermatological research, including signal peptides, carrier peptides, neurotransmitter-inhibiting peptides, and enzyme-modulating peptides, along with their proposed mechanisms and evidence base.
Cross-Reactivity in Peptide Research
Cross-reactivity describes the degree to which an antibody, receptor, or assay recognizes molecules other than its intended target.
Cyclic Peptides in Drug Design
An examination of cyclic peptides as a drug design strategy, covering cyclization chemistry, the advantages of macrocyclic structure for stability and oral bioavailability, key examples in development, and the role of computational design in expanding the cyclic peptide drug space.
Dissociation Constant (Kd)
The dissociation constant (Kd) is the concentration at which half of a receptor's binding sites are occupied by a ligand, quantifying binding affinity.
Dose-Response Studies
Dose-response studies characterize the relationship between peptide drug dose and physiological or clinical effect, informing optimal dosing.
Peptide Drug Development Pipeline
A survey of the current peptide drug development pipeline, including notable candidates in Phase I, II, and III clinical trials, emerging therapeutic areas, and trends shaping the future of peptide pharmaceuticals.
Du Vigneaud and the Synthesis of Oxytocin
In 1953, Vincent du Vigneaud synthesized oxytocin, the first biologically active peptide hormone made entirely in the laboratory.
The ELISA Method
ELISA is a sensitive, non-radioactive immunoassay technique widely used to quantify peptides, hormones, and antibodies in biological samples.
The Discovery of Endothelin
Endothelin-1, one of the most potent vasoconstrictors known, was identified in 1988 by Masashi Yanagisawa in Tsukuba.
Ernest Starling
Ernest Starling was the British physiologist who coined the word 'hormone' in 1905 and, with William Bayliss, discovered secretin.
The First Peptide Drug
The first peptide drug is generally considered to be animal-derived insulin, introduced in 1923, followed by synthetic peptide hormones in the 1950s and 1960s.
The First Radioimmunoassay
The first radioimmunoassay, developed by Yalow and Berson and published in 1960, measured insulin in human plasma and founded modern hormone diagnostics.
The First Recombinant Insulin
Humulin, the first recombinant human insulin, was approved in 1982 after being expressed in E. coli by Genentech and developed with Eli Lilly.
The First Synthetic Oxytocin
Synthetic oxytocin, first produced by du Vigneaud in 1953, was the first peptide hormone to be assembled in the laboratory and used clinically.
Frederick Banting
Frederick Banting was a Canadian surgeon and Nobel laureate who co-discovered insulin at the University of Toronto in 1921-1922.
Frederick Sanger
Frederick Sanger was the British biochemist who sequenced insulin in 1955 and later developed DNA sequencing, earning two Nobel Prizes in Chemistry.
Future of Peptide Therapeutics
An exploration of the future landscape of peptide therapeutics, including pipeline drugs, oral peptide delivery breakthroughs, AI-driven drug design, and emerging research frontiers.
The Discovery of Gastrin
Gastrin, the stomach hormone that drives gastric acid secretion, was proposed by Edkins in 1905 and purified by Gregory and Tracy in the 1960s.
The GH/IGF-1 Axis in Research
An overview of the growth hormone and IGF-1 axis, the research landscape surrounding GH secretagogues, and the clinical evidence for peptides that modulate this system.
The Discovery of Ghrelin
Ghrelin, the gastric peptide that stimulates hunger and growth hormone release, was identified in 1999 by Kojima and colleagues in Tokyo.
The Discovery of GLP-1
GLP-1 emerged from proglucagon sequencing work in the 1980s and became the foundation for a major class of diabetes and obesity drugs.
GLP-1 Agonist Research
A comprehensive review of GLP-1 receptor agonist research, including semaglutide and tirzepatide, covering the metabolic revolution in weight loss pharmacotherapy and emerging non-metabolic applications.
History of Growth Hormone Research
An overview of the discovery, purification, and recombinant production of growth hormone over the twentieth century.
Hans Selye
Hans Selye was the Hungarian-Canadian endocrinologist who introduced the modern concept of stress and the general adaptation syndrome.
Solving the Structure of Insulin
The amino acid sequence of insulin was solved by Sanger in 1955, and its three-dimensional structure by Dorothy Hodgkin in 1969.
The Discovery of Leptin
Leptin, the hormone encoded by the ob gene, was cloned in 1994 by Jeffrey Friedman and colleagues and reshaped obesity research.
Longitudinal Peptide Studies
Longitudinal studies follow the same participants over time to evaluate durability, long-term safety, and delayed effects of peptide interventions.
Marine Peptides
Marine organisms — sponges, tunicates, cyanobacteria, fish, and molluscs — are a vast source of bioactive peptides with applications in oncology, infection, cardiovascular health, cosmetics, and nutrition.
Mass Spectrometry of Peptides
Mass spectrometry has become the gold standard for identifying, characterizing, and quantifying peptides in research and clinical bioanalysis.
The Discovery of Melatonin
Melatonin, the pineal indoleamine that signals darkness, was identified in 1958 by Aaron Lerner at Yale University.
The Microbiome and Peptides
An exploration of the bidirectional relationship between peptides and the human microbiome, covering host-derived antimicrobial peptides, microbiome-produced peptides, and therapeutic implications for gut health, immunity, and beyond.
Mitochondrial Peptide Research
A review of mitochondrial-derived and mitochondria-targeting peptides including MOTS-c, Humanin, and SS-31, examining their roles in cellular energy, aging, and metabolic disease research.
N-of-1 Trials
An N-of-1 trial is a single-patient crossover study that alternates active treatment and placebo to evaluate individual response to therapy.
Neuropeptide Research Overview
An overview of peptides studied for their effects on cognitive function, neuroprotection, and neurological repair, including Selank, Semax, Dihexa, and PE-22-28.
History of Neuropeptide Y
Neuropeptide Y, one of the most abundant neuropeptides in the brain, was isolated by Tatemoto in 1982 at the Karolinska Institute.
The 1977 Nobel Prize for Hypothalamic Hormones
Roger Guillemin and Andrew Schally shared half of the 1977 Nobel Prize for isolating TRH, GnRH, and other hypothalamic peptide hormones.
The 1923 Nobel Prize for Insulin
The 1923 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine went to Banting and Macleod for the discovery of insulin, becoming one of the fastest-awarded Nobels in history.
The 1955 Nobel Prize for Oxytocin Synthesis
The 1955 Nobel Prize in Chemistry went to Vincent du Vigneaud for his work on sulfur-containing biomolecules and the first synthesis of a peptide hormone, oxytocin.
Nobel Prizes for Peptide Chemistry
A survey of Nobel Prizes awarded for foundational advances in peptide chemistry, from Fischer in 1902 to Merrifield in 1984.
The 1977 Nobel Prize for Radioimmunoassay
Rosalyn Yalow received half of the 1977 Nobel Prize for the development of radioimmunoassay, the technique that transformed clinical endocrinology.
Oral Peptide Delivery Advances
A review of the barriers to oral peptide delivery, the technological strategies being developed to overcome them, and the current state of clinically validated oral peptide formulations.
Paul Langerhans
Paul Langerhans was the German pathologist who in 1869 described the pancreatic islets that now bear his name and are the source of insulin.
Peptide Affinity Measurement
Binding affinity — the strength of interaction between a peptide and its receptor — is measured by several biochemical and biophysical methods.
Peptide Aptamers
Peptide aptamers are short combinatorial peptides — often displayed on stable scaffolds — that bind target proteins with antibody-like specificity, serving as research tools, diagnostics, and therapeutic leads.
Peptide Bioconjugation
An overview of bioconjugation strategies used to modify peptide properties, including PEGylation, lipidation, antibody-peptide conjugates, and polymer conjugation, with applications across drug delivery, diagnostics, and research.
Peptide Clinical Trial Design
An overview of how clinical trials of peptide drugs are designed, including common endpoints, control strategies, and regulatory considerations.
Peptide Degradation Pathways
An overview of the enzymatic and non-enzymatic pathways by which peptides are degraded in vivo, covering key proteases such as DPP-IV and neprilysin, chemical degradation mechanisms, and strategies used to improve peptide stability.
Peptide Double-Blind Studies
Double-blind trials, in which neither participants nor investigators know treatment assignments, are essential for unbiased evaluation of peptide drugs.
Peptide-Drug Conjugates
An overview of peptide-drug conjugates (PDCs), comparing them to antibody-drug conjugates, covering targeting peptide selection, linker chemistry, payload options, and clinical applications in oncology and beyond.
History of Peptide Discovery
A chronological overview of key milestones in peptide discovery, from the isolation of insulin in 1921 to the GLP-1 agonist revolution, tracing the scientific breakthroughs that shaped the modern peptide therapeutics landscape.
Peptide Libraries and Screening
An overview of peptide library technologies including phage display, mRNA display, and combinatorial chemistry, and how high-throughput screening identifies peptide leads for therapeutic development.
Peptide Meta-Analyses
Meta-analyses combine data from multiple trials to produce pooled estimates of peptide drug efficacy and safety with improved precision.
Peptide Nanotechnology
Peptide nanotechnology exploits the programmable self-assembly of peptides to build nanoscale structures — fibers, tubes, sheets, and spheres — for drug delivery, tissue engineering, vaccines, and diagnostics.
Peptide Pharmacodynamics Basics
Pharmacodynamics describes how a peptide drug produces its biological effects, including receptor binding, signaling, and downstream physiology.
History of Peptide Pharmacokinetics
The study of how peptide drugs are absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted has evolved from simple bioassays to modern LC-MS and modeling.
Peptide-Protein Interactions
Peptides are uniquely suited to disrupt protein-protein interactions, interfaces that small molecules often struggle with, and have become a central modality in drug discovery.
Peptide Regulation Worldwide
An overview of the regulatory landscape for peptides across major jurisdictions including the FDA, EMA, and TGA, covering approved peptide drugs, compounding pharmacy regulations, and legal gray areas.
Peptide Safety and Side Effects
A comprehensive overview of common and uncommon side effects associated with research peptides, risk assessment frameworks, and warning signs that warrant medical attention.
Peptide Systematic Reviews
Systematic reviews apply structured methods to identify, appraise, and summarize all relevant studies on a peptide intervention or question.
Peptide Drug Tolerance
Peptide drug tolerance is the gradual reduction in response to a peptide with prolonged administration, driven by receptor and post-receptor adaptations.
Peptide Vaccines
An overview of peptide-based vaccine development, covering epitope selection, MHC binding, adjuvant strategies, cancer immunotherapy applications, and the current state of clinical translation.
Peptides in Anti-Aging Research
Peptide-based approaches to slowing biological aging span senolytic, mitochondrial, proteostatic, and endocrine strategies, building on insights from geroscience and the molecular hallmarks of aging.
Peptides in Cardiology
An overview of peptides in cardiovascular medicine, covering natriuretic peptide biology, BNP-based diagnostics and therapeutics, and emerging peptide approaches to cardiac repair, hypertension, and atherosclerosis.
Peptides in Cosmeceuticals
Cosmeceuticals sit at the boundary between cosmetics and therapeutics, and peptides play a central role in modern cosmeceutical formulations for wrinkles, pigmentation, barrier function, and skin health.
Peptides in Dermatology
A review of clinical and preclinical evidence for peptides in dermatology, spanning cosmetic applications like collagen stimulation and wrinkle reduction to therapeutic uses in wound healing and skin disorders.
Peptides in Endocrinology
An overview of peptides in endocrinological research, covering the major hypothalamic-pituitary peptide axes, therapeutic peptide hormones, and diagnostic applications of peptide-based testing in endocrine medicine.
Peptides in Fertility Research
Peptide hormones and analogs are foundational to fertility medicine, controlling gonadotropin release, ovulation timing, and embryo implantation, with ongoing innovation in delivery, kinetics, and novel targets.
Peptides in Gastroenterology
An overview of peptides in gastroenterological research, covering endogenous gut hormones, therapeutic peptide agents, and emerging investigational compounds for gastrointestinal conditions including inflammatory bowel disease, gastroparesis, and functional GI disorders.
Peptides in Immunology Research
Peptides serve as antigens, immunomodulators, and therapeutics across the immune system, underlying vaccines, autoimmune therapies, cancer immunotherapy, and host defense.
Peptides in Metabolic Disease
A review of peptide therapeutics in metabolic disease, focusing on the GLP-1 receptor agonist revolution, dual and triple incretin agonists, and emerging peptide approaches to obesity, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome.
Peptides in Neuroscience
An overview of peptide therapeutics in neuroscience, covering neuropeptide biology, blood-brain barrier crossing strategies, and clinical development for neurological and psychiatric conditions.
Peptides in Obesity Research
Peptide-based obesity therapeutics, especially incretin analogs and multi-agonists, have transformed weight management in the 2020s, with a deep pipeline still to come.
Peptides in Oncology
A comprehensive overview of peptide applications in oncology, including tumor-targeting peptides, peptide-drug conjugates, radiopeptide therapy, cancer immunotherapy, and peptide-based diagnostics.
Peptides in Ophthalmology
Peptides are increasingly used in ophthalmology for dry eye, retinal disease, antimicrobial defense, and surgical adjuncts, with the ocular surface being particularly amenable to topical peptide delivery.
Peptides in Pain Research
Peptide-based analgesics aim to match or exceed opioid efficacy while avoiding tolerance, dependence, and respiratory depression, drawing on neuropeptide biology and venom-derived leads.
Peptides in Rare Diseases
Rare diseases are a disproportionately large proving ground for peptide therapeutics, from hormone replacement in hereditary deficiencies to novel peptide agonists for ultra-rare conditions.
Peptides in Sleep Research
Peptides regulate sleep-wake cycles through orexin, GHRH, galanin, delta sleep-inducing peptide, and other neuropeptide systems, with active drug development for insomnia, narcolepsy, and circadian disorders.
Peptides in Sports Science
An examination of peptides studied in the context of sports science, including growth hormone secretagogues, recovery-related peptides, and performance-adjacent compounds, along with regulatory considerations and the current evidence base.
Peptides in Veterinary Medicine
Peptide therapeutics play growing roles in companion animal medicine, livestock production, and aquaculture — from GnRH analogs in reproduction to GLP-1 agonists emerging in canine diabetes.
Peptides in Wound Care
Clinical and preclinical evidence for peptide-based wound care interventions, including applications in chronic wounds, diabetic ulcers, burn injuries, and surgical wound management.
Peptides vs Small Molecules
A comparative analysis of peptide therapeutics versus small molecule drugs, examining differences in selectivity, manufacturing, delivery, pharmacokinetics, and clinical applications.
Placebo-Controlled Peptide Trials
Placebo-controlled trials remain the gold standard for evaluating peptide drug efficacy, but they pose specific design challenges for injected peptides.
Plant-Derived Peptides
Plants produce an astonishing diversity of bioactive peptides — from cyclic hypersables to antimicrobial defensins and food-derived functional peptides — with applications from drug discovery to nutrition.
Predrag Sikiric
Predrag Sikiric is the Croatian gastroenterologist and pharmacologist who identified BPC-157 and has led its preclinical characterization for decades.
The Discovery of Prolactin
Prolactin was identified in the 1920s and 1930s as the pituitary hormone responsible for lactation and is now known to have dozens of additional roles.
The Discovery of Parathyroid Hormone
Parathyroid hormone, the calcium-regulating peptide, was isolated by James Collip in 1925, shortly after his work on insulin.
Peptide Purity and Testing
An explanation of how peptide purity is measured and verified, including HPLC, mass spectrometry, endotoxin testing, and how to interpret Certificates of Analysis.
The Discovery of Peptide YY
Peptide YY (PYY), a 36-amino-acid satiety hormone from intestinal L-cells, was isolated by Mutt and Tatemoto in 1980.
The Radioimmunoassay Method
The radioimmunoassay method combines antibody specificity with radioactive tracers to quantify hormones, peptides, and other analytes at trace concentrations.
Reading a Certificate of Analysis
A practical guide to interpreting Certificates of Analysis for research peptides, covering HPLC purity data, mass spectrometry confirmation, endotoxin testing, amino acid analysis, and common red flags that indicate unreliable documentation.
Rita Levi-Montalcini
Rita Levi-Montalcini was the Italian neurobiologist who co-discovered nerve growth factor and shared the 1986 Nobel Prize with Stanley Cohen.
Robert Bruce Merrifield
Robert Bruce Merrifield invented solid-phase peptide synthesis in 1963, a method that revolutionized the construction of peptides and won the 1984 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Roger Guillemin
Roger Guillemin was a French-American neuroendocrinologist who isolated TRH, GnRH, and somatostatin, sharing the 1977 Nobel Prize.
Rosalyn Yalow
Rosalyn Yalow developed radioimmunoassay with Solomon Berson, revolutionizing hormone measurement and earning the 1977 Nobel Prize.
Secretin: The First Hormone
Secretin, identified in 1902 by William Bayliss and Ernest Starling, was the first molecule shown to act as a hormone and gave the field its name.
Self-Assembling Peptides
An overview of self-assembling peptides — short sequences that spontaneously organize into nanostructures, hydrogels, and scaffolds with applications in tissue engineering, drug delivery, wound healing, and regenerative medicine.
The Invention of Solid-Phase Peptide Synthesis
Solid-phase peptide synthesis, invented by Bruce Merrifield in 1963, transformed peptide chemistry by anchoring the growing chain to a polymer support.
The Discovery of Somatostatin
Somatostatin, the hypothalamic peptide that inhibits growth hormone release, was identified in 1973 by Brazeau and Guillemin.
Specificity in Peptide Binding
Specificity describes the preference of a peptide for its intended receptor or target over structurally related alternatives.
Peptide Stability Challenges
Why peptides degrade in biological environments and during storage, the major degradation pathways, and the chemical, structural, and formulation strategies used to overcome stability limitations.
Stanley Cohen
Stanley Cohen was the American biochemist who discovered epidermal growth factor and, with Rita Levi-Montalcini, nerve growth factor.
Stapled Peptides
An overview of stapled peptide technology, including hydrocarbon stapling chemistry, applications in targeting intracellular protein-protein interactions, clinical development, and the Aileron Therapeutics program.
History of Substance P
Substance P, the prototypical tachykinin, was first described in 1931 by von Euler and Gaddum and sequenced in 1971 by Chang and Leeman.
Tachyphylaxis
Tachyphylaxis is the rapid decrease in drug response with repeated dosing, commonly observed with peptide agonists at GPCRs.
History of Thymosin Research
Thymosins were identified in the 1960s and 1970s as thymic peptide factors influencing T-cell development and innate immunity.
Understanding Peptide Research
A guide to interpreting peptide research literature, understanding study design, distinguishing preclinical from clinical evidence, and recognizing common limitations.
The Discovery of Vasopressin
Vasopressin, the antidiuretic hormone of the posterior pituitary, was identified through late 19th- and early 20th-century research on pituitary extracts.
Venom-Derived Peptides
Animal venoms are among the richest natural sources of biologically active peptides, yielding potent, selective drugs for hypertension, pain, diabetes, anticoagulation, and cancer.
Viktor Mutt
Viktor Mutt was an Estonian-Swedish biochemist at the Karolinska Institute who isolated and sequenced many gastrointestinal peptides.
Vincent du Vigneaud
Vincent du Vigneaud was the American biochemist who performed the first total synthesis of a peptide hormone, oxytocin, in 1953.
WADA and Peptides
An overview of which peptides appear on the WADA Prohibited List, how anti-doping testing for peptides works, and the implications for competitive athletes.
Who Discovered Peptides?
An overview of the discovery of peptides and the peptide bond, tracing the key figures from Emil Fischer onward.
William Bayliss
William Bayliss was the British physiologist who co-discovered secretin with Ernest Starling in 1902, launching the field of endocrinology.
Peptides and Wound Healing
A review of peptides studied for wound healing and tissue repair, including BPC-157, TB-500, and GHK-Cu, examining the preclinical and clinical evidence for their regenerative properties.